Week 9

The Future 

Internal Combustion:

Everyone pictures the future of the automobile as electric and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles, but we cannot let the internal combustion engine go away so soon.  Not only is it still the most reliable and practical mode of powering cars, but it is also the one that all automotive manufacturers have put the most resources into developing.  There is still more that can be done to the conventional internal combustion platform to make is more efficient and produce less emissions.

Recently, automotive manufacturers have been developing new ways to cut down on fuel used by the internal combustion engine.  The first and most prominent is building engines smaller so their displacement is smaller.  For years, larger engines were favored by manufacturers and consumers alike because they produce more power, making a car faster.  The loss of engine power due to this cut in displacement is mitigated greatly by new engine parts and mechanics that make a modern engine of small displacement similarly powerful to a large displacement engine from many years ago.  Many manufacturers are now using methods such as forced induction via turbochargers to create more power without sacrificing fuel economy.  It is likely that the combination of lower displacing engines and turbochargers will become the norm in the automotive industry for the internal combustion engine.

Another method of lowering emissions being employed by automotive manufacturers across the board is using weight-saving materials in production of the vehicle body.  While we are still years from all vehicles employing carbon fiber, a very lightweight but expensive material used in expensive sports cars, we have seen most manufacturers moving towards the use of aluminum and magnesium alloys in car production.  Using these methods, manufacturers can reduce the weight of their vehicles without sacrificing chassis strength and crash safety.  In the coming years, it is likely that most vehicles will have bodies made exclusively of aluminum and many vehicles with chassis made of aluminum.

There is no reason we should give up on the internal combustion engine yet.  It is still an extremely reliable and practical solution to powering cars, and with new innovations in the way of engine parts and vehicle materials there is greater efficiency to be seen out of them in the coming years.  The focus on internal combustion vehicles should be on phasing out past vehicles that are still on the roads and do not employ any of these emissions-reducing technologies. 

Plug-in Hybrid/Hybrid:

The word hybrid was once synonymous with slow and expensive, and when the first hybrid vehicles were introduced, there were many skeptics who didn't believe they would catch on.  Over the past few years, countless car companies have poured their resources into integrating hybrid models into their fleets, whether they be standalone models or based off existing models.  The benefit of hybrid technology is that it is not too difficult to integrate in an existing platform.  At the current rate of hybrid development, it is not unlikely that most vehicles will soon have a hybrid option you can tick when purchasing.  We have seen a similar movement in the past when oil prices were high and people were looking for more efficient alternatives.  Companies like Volkswagen, Audi, BMW, and Mercedes among others began offering a diesel powertrain on most of their vehicles.

The automotive industry, through innovations in hybrid technologies, has been able to eradicate the idea of slow expensive hybrids.  Today, hybrid vehicles are not all that much more expensive that conventional gasoline vehicles.  Since there are more options currently on the market, there are more affordable options available.  Also, sports car and luxury car manufacturers have used hybrid tech to make cars go faster, proving that hybrid technology isn't just for slow cars.  It is likely that the innovations made in these industries will trickle down to common vehicles in the coming years and we will see electric motors used in similar ways as turbochargers are being used today.

Plug-in hybrids are an interesting topic because they cross into the realm of electric vehicles since they can run on all electric power for short periods of time and can be plugged in to charge.  Theoretically, if you only go short distances, you can drive a plug in hybrid without using any gasoline.  While they are not as popular as conventional hybrids right now, their popularity could increase due to several factors.  Many places (excluding California) have a limited number of charging locations where you can take your plug-in vehicle, making them less practical for those who drive long distances.  More information regarding charging stations will be discussed in the next section.  Another limiting factor for plug-in hybrids is the current price.  Like when conventional hybrids were introduced, the technology for plug-in hybrids is typically more expensive than conventional vehicles.  As technology improves and more charging stations are established around the world, it is likely plug-in hybrids will become more popular in mass markets.  

Electric:

Electric vehicles have long been cars of the future, something unlikely to catch on, but with the innovations and industry contributions of Tesla, it is becoming a reality.  Seeing Tesla's success and feeling encouraged, car companies like Nissan, Chevy, BMW, and Mercedes have released full-electric vehicles to the public.  With continued development by all these companies, initial issues like range, charging time and speed capabilities have been fixed and electric vehicles are a more practical option.

As mentioned above, the major limiting factor of electric vehicles are accessible charging stations.  The most popular place for electric vehicles in the United States is California, which also has the largest number of charging stations in the country.  Electric vehicles become much more practical when they are paired with charging stations wherever you are looking to stop.  As future propositions go, electric vehicles are one of the most promising.  With technological advancements flowing over the last few years, and the past qualms against EVs have been almost eradicated.

Week 8

Wrapping Things Up

As we edge closer to the end of the term, the group begins to design and construct our final three deliverables:

1. Final Report
2. Memo 
3. PowerPoint Presentation 

 Each member was given a vehicle type to gather data on and create a detailed and concise segment for the final report.  The memo will compile all data down to important key topics that will, in theory, grasp the attention of  Government Agency or State officials.  The final report has summarized a majority of findings and will be used as a basis to create the final PowerPoint presentation.

In the coming week we will post our final three deliverables for your viewing.

Week 7

EV’s— The Way of the Future?

       Electric vehicles (EV’s) are the world’s current car obsession. Everyone is out to make the best battery technology, with the longest range and the quickest charge time. Where did the electric car originate, and why is it just becoming popular now?

       Electric vehicles were first introduced in the 1800s after the invention of the battery and the electric motor. Innovators around the world experimented with the concept of battery-powered vehicles and succeeded in creating some of the world’s first electric vehicles. 

        As other types of vehicles slowly became available, such as steam and combustion engines, people realized that they had major downsides to their operation. Electric cars proved to be both useful and simple to use, making them a popular choice in the early 20th century. Until Henry Ford’s Model T was released, electric car technology was looking up. However, after the mass-produced combustion-engine vehicle became available, it soon took the top spot in vehicle tech.

        In the 1960s, high oil prices and gas shortages led to another spike in the exploration of electric vehicle technology, though they remained an unpopular choice amongst Americans. The 1990’s garnered more interest because of the environmental impacts of  traditional vehicles. It wasn't until the release of the hybrid Toyota Prius in 2000 that the concept of electric vehicles was really taken seriously.

        Fast forward to today, where brands like Chevrolet, Nissan, and most notably Tesla Motors, have gotten a huge stake in the overall car industry. People are flocking to buy electric vehicles which can go upwards of 200 miles per charge, and get around 100 MPG, making them a smart environmental decision, as well as a monetary one. Electric vehicle sales have grown 60% in the past year, and will account for 35% of car sales by 2040.

The Future of the Electric Vehicle

       So, where is the electric vehicle taking us in the future? If we were to transition to more electric vehicles on the road, we could reduce our dependence on foreign oil by up to 60%, as well as our emissions by up to 20%.

1. Battery costs have been cut in half within the past four years.
2. Costs of electric cars will soon be comparable to those of gasoline powered vehicles (Figure 1)
3. Charging stations are being built across the country, with the help of a $115 million grant from the government.
4. EV’s are gaining range and speed credentials very quickly
5. Global environmental concerns are making the race for electric cars more intense than ever (Figure 2 & 3)

Figure 1: Net cost comparison of different types of vehicles

Figure 2: Lifetime CO2 production comparison of different types of vehicles

Figure 3: Lifetime energy usage comparison of different types of vehicles

EV Statistics

Production:

• Average Weight: 1575kg + 300kg lithium ion battery
• Average life expectancy: 180,000 miles 
• Average MPG = approx. 100
• Battery manufacturing contributes 19% of lifetime energy requirement, as well as 24% of EV emissions

Upkeep:

• Battery to be replaced or partially replaced at least once during vehicle’s lifetime
• Capacity slowly decreases after recharging

• Electricity mix from a mixture of: coal, nuclear, natural gas, hydropower, wind, geothermal, solar and biomass

Shipping:

• Car parts made in Mexico, shipped by diesel fuel truck to US border
• Batteries made in China, shipped by diesel cargo ship
• All parts shipped by rail to Detroit

Recycling:

• Car as a whole is recycled the same way as CV’s, but battery sets them apart
• Disposal of car parts uses 1297.33 MJ of energy and 53.51kg of CO2
• Currently cheaper to use raw materials versus recycling old battery parts
• Battery recycling uses 31 MJ.kg which equates to 13950 MJ of energy and 680.76 kg CO2

Overall lifetime energy requirement: 506,988 MJ

• Use phase accounts for 74% of total energy use over vehicle’s lifetime

Overall lifetime emissions: 31,821kg CO2 Equivalents

• Use phase accounts for 69% of total emissions over vehicle’s lifetime

References:

Environmental Study by UCLA

http://www.environment.ucla.edu/media/files/BatteryElectricVehicleLCA2012-rh-ptd.pdf

The Future of Electric Vehicles is Bright

https://www.nrdc.org/experts/roland-hwang/future-electric-vehicles-bright

The History of the Electric Car

http://energy.gov/articles/history-electric-car 

The Need for a Better Battery

http://breakingenergy.com/2014/05/02/battery-electric-vehicles-the-need-for-a-better-battery/

Week 6

 CV vs EV - CO₂ Emissions

Introduction: 

The largest battle waged between automobiles is that of the conventional gas-powered vehicles (CV) and the newly established electric vehicle (EV) market.  Unlike hybrids, EVs do not burn any gasoline and therefore have zero operating emissions.  The drawback of this is a limited range and a required charge time once the batteries are empty.  Many people like to think that EVs are truly zero emission vehicles, however that is not the case.  EV buyers must take into consideration where the electricity for charging their car is coming from and the associated greenhouse gas emissions with that process.  

1. What goes into CV emissions?

Before the vehicle is used, the fuel must be pulled out of the earth and turned into gasoline.  The steps of this process are broken up below.

• Recovery of crude oil -- 1,862 grams per mmBtu
• Transportation to oil refineries -- 1,689 grams per mmBtu
• Gasoline Refining: Feed Inputs -- 3,664 grams per mmBtu
• Gasoline Refining: Intermediate Combustion -- 7,722 grams per mmBtu
• Transportation and Distribution -- 521 grams per mmBtu
• Total: 15,458 grams per mmBtu

Additional information is needed to fully represent the emissions of the vehicle. When comparing CVs and EVs, we are assuming that all production processes other than those involving the battery are generally the same.  

• Production of Lead Acid Battery -- 4,392 grams per battery (assumption of 36 lb battery)
• We assume the average fuel efficiency to be 27 miles per gallon (MPG) which is a US average figure that includes newly produced vehicles as well as vehicles that have been on the roads for several years (the average for all new vehicles would be much higher)
• We assume the average lifetime mileage of cars to be about 200,000 miles
• Energy of one gallon of gasoline -- 125,000 Btu
• We assume the average carbon dioxide emissions per mile to be 368.4 grams (EPA)

Finally, we can calculate the total carbon dioxide emissions for CVs using the bold figures above.

(1 gallon / 27 miles) * (200,000 miles / 1 lifetime) * (125,000 Btu / 1 gallon) *

(15,458 grams / 1 mmBtu) * (1 mmBtu / 1,000,000 Btu) = 14,312,176 grams / lifetime

(368.4 grams / 1 mile) * (200,000 miles / 1 lifetime) = 73,680,000 grams / lifetime

Total CV Emissions: 14,312,176 grams + 73,680,000 grams + 4,392 grams = 87,996,568 grams 

2. What goes into EV emissions?

Before you can charge your electric vehicle at your home or at a public charging station, the electricity must first be created.  Information regarding the process of calculating EV emissions is below.  The same assumptions we made about the general production of a car that we made above are made here.

• Electricity provided to consumer -- 558 grams per kWh
• Production of lithium ion battery -- 53,635 grams per battery
• We assume the average EV-efficiency to be about 33 kWh per 100 miles of use
• Once again, we assume a total accumulated mileage of 200,000 miles over the car's lifetime 
• We do not consider the replacement of battery cells over time as their deterioration varies from user to user and from car to car (improving technology also reduces the necessity of this)

With those values, we can calculate the total carbon dioxide emissions from EVs.  

(33 kWh / 100 miles) * (558 grams / 1 kWh) * (200,000 miles / 1 lifetime) = 36,828,000 grams

Total EV Emissions: 36,828,000 grams + 53,635 grams = 36,881, 635 grams

Conclusions:

While these calculations have debunked the idea that EVs are zero emissions vehicles, it has proven that EVs are a cleaner choice of automobile provided your budget can handle the high cost of the technology and your daily commute is short enough to accommodate the limited range.  As EVs see more investment in research and development, it is very possible these values will change and the EV will become a practical and environmentally friendly choice for everyone.  

References:

Location of researched emissions value per mile driven
https://www3.epa.gov/otaq/consumer/420f08024.pdf

Average US vehicle efficiency
http://www.rita.dot.gov/bts/sites/rita.dot.gov.bts/files/publications/national_transportation_statistics/html/table_04_23.html

Information on EV efficiency
http://www.greencarreports.com/news/1082737_electric-car-efficiency-forget-mpge-it-should-be-miles-kwh

Common mileage information for today's automobiles
http://business.time.com/2012/03/20/what-you-only-have-100k-miles-on-your-car-thats-nothing/



- Alexander Hall

  abh53@drexel.edu

Week 5

Hybrid Electric Vehicles VS Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles

(1) Hybrid Vehicles:

                                    What Are Hybrid Electric Vehicles and how do they work?

Hybrid Electric Vehicles, also known as HEVs were first developed between 1899 and 1901 by Ferdinand Porshe with the introduction of the Lohner-Porshe Mixte Hybrid to the public. Today's HEVs use an Internal combustion engine (ICE)-and can therefore be fueled like normal cars-but also have electric motors and batteries that could power the vehicle partially or wholly. 

The dual nature of these vehicles has led to the rise of three basic modes of operation which include: regenerative braking, electric motor drive assist and automatic start/stop. Each mode enhances the functionality of the vehicle from maximizing power to energy storage. Examples of a current HEV is the Toyota Prius. 

(2) Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles:

   What Are Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles and how so they work?

Plug In Hybrid Electric Vehicles, also known as PHEVs were developed later that the conventional Hybrid vehicles. As the name suggests these automobiles are powered by rechargeable battery packs (mostly Lithium Ion or Nickel-Cadium), which unlike with the HEV, is the primary source of power of the vehicle. 

There are three different kinds of PHEVs opened for public use. 

(a) The Series Plug In Hybrid: also known as the Extended Range Electric Vehicle (EREV) runs mostly on electricity, Thus despite the presence of ICE, only the electric motors are connected to and can propel the Tyre wheels. 

(b) The Parallel or Blended Plug-In Hybrid: For this kind of PHEV both the ICE and the Electric motors are connected to and can propel Tyre wheels. However at very low speeds this Plug-In operates on 'Electric-only' mode. 

(c) Series-Parallel Hybrid: These kinds of PHEVs have the flexibility to function both the series and the Blended Plug-Ins

Juxtaposing Hybrids, Plug-Ins and Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles 

Figure I

Figure II

The above diagrams give juxtaposed accounts of the of the electricity sources used to charge EVs and PHEVs on grids along with the annual emissions generated from vehicles (covered in for this project) using electricity from the grid, gasoline, or a combination of the two for the entire country (Figure I) and more specifically the state of Pennsylvania (Figure II). 

It is important to note that values provided in the above illustrations are based on certain assumptions made by the Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy wing of the US department of Energy. Such assumptions include: inputting 23.5 pounds of Carbon-dioxide emission per gallon of gasoline (derived from GREET model), inputting 24.3 miles per gallon on Conventional Vehicles (Corporate Average Fuel Economy-CAFE-standards), 44.4 miles per gallon on HEVs, 37.9 miles per gallon on PHEVs. More details can be found via the US Energy of Department. 

Beyond the Facts and Figures

A major deliverable for the project described in this blog is the Memo that would be addressed to pertinent local and federal authorities who may already be conscious of the scientific facts. What we hope to also emphasize through the Memo (and project report) is the practicality of these vehicles when compared to eachother. Take for example the following: 

(1) HEVs, and PHEVs in particular, use roughly 30%-60% less petroleum than Conventional Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles. They therefore also reduce oil dependence. 

(2) PHEVs, next to Electric Vehicles, emit the least amount of green house gases. However the amount generated depends partly on the fuel used at the electrical power plants. 

(3) Though PHEVs  have less fuel and environmental costs than the Conventional and even Hybrid Vehicles, they are considerably more expensive. With some Plug-In cars valued $4,000-$8,000 more than regular Hybrids. 

REFERENCES

• (1) G.R.E.E.T. life cycle model by Argonne Laboratory, Illinnois 
• (2) US Department of Energy_Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy
• Alternate Fuels Data Center
• http://www.afdc.energy.gov/vehicles/electric_emissions_sources.html
• Well-to-Wheels Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions Analysis of Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles
• How HEVs and PHEVs work
• https://www.fueleconomy.gov/feg/hybridtech.shtml

Week 4

GREET Model Overview 

Greenhouse gases,

Regulated

Emissions, and

Energy use in

Transportation

The GREET model is designed to break down the full life-cycle of vehicles. Sponsored by the Argonne National Laboratory (ANL), it shows the environmental impacts of vehicles from creation, to use, to destruction. The GREET model generates figures of the amounts of energy used and emissions created in order to better the future of vehicle usage and their production. Through either the use of multidimensional spreadsheets or the ANL’s software, one can see the emissions of the three standard greenhouse gases: CO2, CH4, and N20. 

The GREET program itself is organized into a variety of tabs (See Figure 1) that indicate statistics about types of fuel (eg. petroleum, natural gas, electric, etc.), types of vehicles (passenger cars, light and medium duty trucks), and types of vehicle technologies (spark-ignition, direct-injection, hybrid electric, etc.). 

ANL commonly refers to their examination of vehicles as a well-to-wheel model; a vehicle’s LCA, or Life Cycle Assessment, shows a vehicle’s environmental impact from the creation of its parts, to the end of its life. Their fuel pathways are also analyzed. Fuel pathways are the processes that make up the life of a type of fuel, including the production of the fuel and its use. Through the exploration of various fuel pathways and vehicle technologies, ANL hopes to lessen environmental impacts from vehicles both in the present, and in the future.

Figure 1: An Example of the GREET User Interface

Argonne National Laboratory:

https://greet.es.anl.gov

An Explanation of GREET

http://www.lifecycleassociates.com/lca-tools/greet-model/

An Introduction to Using GREET

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ajbfdnrCWuk&list=PLLT1SPoEVQqxWRoFTABWU_ibyLSpS18pO&index=3

Argonne's Michael Wang Discussing GREET

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=92U9PqeiJIA

Week 3

Objectives:

• Determine what is involved in greenhouse gas emissions
• Examine the stages of vehicle life
• Assign specific types of cars for each group member to research

Activities:

After examining the inner-workings of the GREET model, we decided it would be beneficial to explore the idea of life cycle and how it works with automobiles.  

• As we learned in week one, the GREET model takes all factors available for examination and uses them to create the final model. Since the operation of the vehicle is not the only source of greenhouse gas emissions, it cannot be the only thing considered in our research.  

• Below the general stages of vehicle life are modeled for each of the types of vehicles we plan on working with.

Life Cycle by Vehicle:

• Gas - Gas vehicles require fewer intricacies in the manufacturing of the vehicle than the others, however the oil needed to operate these vehicles is much greater than the others

• Hybrid - Hybrid vehicles go through the same processes as the gas vehicles through their lifetime but add the production and recycling of the battery.  As a trade-off, they require less oil to power their gas motor.

• Electric - Electric vehicles have less mechanical components than gas and hybrid vehicles but have large batteries that must be produced and eventually recycled. While operation of these vehicles does not use any oil, the electric energy to charge them must be produced somewhere.

• Hydrogen - Hydrogen fuel cell vehicles are currently being held back by the cost and difficulty of production.  The fuel cells themselves are costly and the hydrogen fuel, while eco-friendly, is currently produced from fossil fuels.  Also considered in the life cycle of hydrogen fuel cell vehicles is the recycling of the fuel cell itself.

Commentary:

This week was mostly spent researching the systems above.  We found information pertaining to the specific portions of the processes that will be gathered to help us create the GREET model.  Also completed this week was assignment of specific research roles for each group member.  Alex will be working on gas vehicles, Nondu will be researching hybrid vehicles, Erica will be taking care of electric vehicles and Anthony will be working on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.  We assigned roles so as to not conduct redundant research and so we could focus on our respective vehicles, getting more in-depth information and analysis.  

References:

Information on the life cycles of CVs, BEVs and HEVs, 

http://www.environment.ucla.edu/media/files/BatteryElectricVehicleLCA2012-rh-ptd.pdf

Information on recycling EV batteries

http://pubs.acs.org/doi/ipdf/10.1021/es903729a

General information on hydrogen fuel cell vehicles

http://www.iop.org/resources/topic/archive/fuel/

Week 2

Greenhouse gas Overview

             Transportation of goods have always been at the forefront of every civilization, how fast can the product be made and delivered to an area where the demands are high or transportation of people over a vast distance. The development of the automobile allowed society to expand towards the edge of the city, surbanization, and the production of goods are able to reach developing towns and cities faster. While this lead to the success of developing areas, it also creates harsh living conditions for those still living within the cities.

            As our cities continue to grow and expand both upward and out, the ability to sustain a healthy climate decreases. Cities being generally warmer, have more rain and clouds, creates a harsh living environment for plant life to flourish. These factors contribute to the increased concentration of carbon dioxide emissions and other pollutants. The normal behavior of temperature in the troposphere is to decrease with height, allowing the concentration of pollutants to escape. As clean air sweeps the Earths surface it collects natural and anthropogenic pollutants, often called primary pollutants, these are often dispersed or diluted by the turbulent air in the troposphere keeping pollutants from reaching dangerous levels.

            However, in a thermal inversion, a lower layer of cool air can be trapped beneath a layer of less dense warm air, allowing pollutants to reach a toxic level. Two types of air pollution directed related to the burning of fossil fuels and creating unhealthy living conditions in cities are photochemical, a chemical reaction activated by light, and industrial smog are the leading causes for unhealthy living conditions in urban areas.

 

         Normal atmospheric state                                      Thermal Inversion             

            Urban areas face a growing concern towards GHG as population continues to grow, contributing to the 80% of harmful anthropogenic pollutants since 1980. As a whole, conventional vehicle in the United States can account for approximately 28% of CO2 emissions. As the Federal Government focus more on increasing fuel efficiency and lowering greenhouse emissions, we can move further away from fossil fuel and more towards alternative energy vehicles.

          
References:

A study on Vehicle Emissions
http://phys.org/news/2015-04-vehicle-emissons-aid-urban-sustainability.html

Center for Climate and Energy Solutions
http://www.c2es.org/federal/executive/vehicle-standards 

UN Data
http://data.un.org/CountryProfile.aspx?crName=United%20States%20of%20America#Environment 

EPA
https://www3.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources/transportation.html